<div>As this is my first post, here is a brief introduction:</div>
<div><br>My name is Michael Dennis and I am a graduate student in the Department of Media Study at the State University of New York at Buffalo.</div>
<div><br>Now that that's out of the way...</div>
<div><br>Film studies remains my academic focus and I am especially interested in the classical tenets of film theory. This of course is a somewhat uncommon and even archaic focus in the face of what new media, as a field of study, is in conversation with today. Attempting to bridge this gap, I produced the paper showing here.
</div>
<div><br><a href="http://www.molodiez.org/New_Viewership.pdf">http://www.molodiez.org/New_Viewership.pdf</a></div>
<div><br>It was my goal to undertake a discussion of the effects of new media on the sociable aspects of film viewership. This idea grew into a survey of the status of moving image content on the internet and even some speculations on the future of cinema.
<br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><strong>New Viewership</strong><br>The Cinema, the Internet, and the Audience<br><br>Michael T. Dennis<br><br>December 2006<br> </div>
<div><br><br>In modern American society, so reliant on the technical practices made possible by network technology, it is surprising to come across an instance of cultural production that has not taken advantage of these new possibilities to a high degree. While it is anything but a marginalized form of expression, one such example is commercial cinema. Popular films still find their primary exhibition in the movie theater, just as they have for over a century. Given the state of the internet and the history of film distribution in America, one might well ask why there is not a large-scale, stable system in place for online access to movies. Meanwhile, film exists online in different and sometimes innovative forms. An analysis of current and historical trends will reveal that the absence of commercial film from emerging markets of distribution is affecting considerably the fundamental nature of cinema and viewership.
<br><br> <br><strong>A Note on Methodology</strong><br><br>American filmmaking, while a decidedly narrow sampling, is the preferred focus for a discussion of this sort. The United States still dominates the international film industry, perhaps more so than at any time in the past. Techno-obsession and the recent emergence of an internet culture also make America an ideal place to study the complexities and ambiguities of new media.
<br><br>Although the production of films in the United States is a major economic practice, an approach to the question of film's relationship with twenty-first century technology grounded in economic methods is less than ideal. As an emerging market, the internet possesses vast potential. It seems likely that from a purely commerce-oriented position any investigation would result in a call for film to immediately be made available online. The inertia that keeps movies in theaters and off personal computers is of a socio-artistic nature; as will be discussed later, it is not the result of corporations failing to notice a new space where their product might be sold. As such, the issues surrounding the future of film distribution remain largely subjective. Empirical data is far less useful than a socially contextualized understanding of viewing as an essential part of the cinematic experience. Like most media, film can be positioned as a commodified product. It would be negligent, however, to forget that it can also be artwork whose value is social rather than monetary.
<br><br>The term 'film' itself is potentially problematic, and I will address it here to avoid confusion later. While 'film' can refer to a medium, a specific instance of that medium's content, or a physical object, here it is used in the most general sense. It is not intended to necessarily imply a motion picture (or body of motion pictures) produced on celluloid. Conversely, 'video' is meant to explicitly denote motion picture content produced electronically, or transferred to an electronic medium for viewing. 'Cinema' may refer to the body of moving images that it could reasonably be argued possess artistic merit, in opposition to (though often overlapping) commercial, industrial production.
<br><br> <br><strong>The Internet as Content Carrier</strong><br><br>As the internet becomes more pervasive and use increases, it becomes a carrier for content that may have once been resistant to being turned into a network commodity. An excellent example of this is the well-known story of popular music and its relationship with the online world. Long after internet banking, shopping, and personal communication were established as part of daily life for millions of Americans, music was still relatively unavailable. File sharing services were developed by intrepid individuals, and quickly gained popularity in the late 1990's, allowing for the free reproduction and transmission of music regardless of its copyright status. This touched off a prolonged series of legal disputes between representatives of the music industry, copyright holders, and individual internet users who were accessing the material. To outsiders, it soon became clear that no comprehensive resolution could ever come to pass; the internet had irrevocably transformed the market for music. Few were surprised, then, when the closest thing to a solution turned out to be the opening of online music stores where songs could be downloaded simply and securely for a nominal fee. Artists who supported free availability of their copyrighted material could still offer it elsewhere online, and internet users had the convenient access they wanted without the fear of legal action being taken against them. The calming of rhetoric as well as the millions of paid, fully sanctioned downloads facilitated by services such as Apple's iTunes[1] speak to the success of this model.
<br><br>Another instance of content with a history of reluctance to come online is scholarly writing. The culture of academic journals, founded on strictly controlling access to published material, made internet research the realm of amateurs for many years. While at the moment this subject is much more contentious than the question of downloading music, the open access movement is a very real force in the publishing world. Subscription services such as JSTOR[2] make fee-based access available to many academic institutions and countless publications make their own material available online concurrent with or some time after (and now, sometimes instead of) appearing in print. As in the case of music, the evolution of an industry does not happen instantaneously. New distribution models can, and sometimes must, come into use, but at a much slower pace than the rate at which technology makes such new practices possible.
<br><br>Yet for all the growth of networks and the new tasks they become capable of mediating, mainstream commercial cinema is still largely absent. In the past, this was often attributed to the limits of the network itself. Bandwidth capacities were a reality for an internet composed of users with dial-up access and primitive (by 2006 standards) computers. These facts do explain why text and audio, utilizing smaller file sizes and digital compression, dominated the internet in its earliest incarnation. For the most part, and in asking why so little film appears online, these concerns are a thing of the past. Compared to just a few years ago, the vast majority of middle- and upper-class American internet users have access to faster connections, larger storage capacity hard drives, and, in many cases, integrated household networks connecting television, computer(s), and other peripheral devices.
<br><br>More recently, television programming has become available online at an ever-increasing rate. Once digital recording (and, therefore, potential online sharing) of television became achievable through affordable technology – systems for connecting television and computer, or external recording devices such as the popular TiVo[3]- major television networks began to offer episodes of popular programs online shortly after their initial airing for a per-download fee. Combining aspects of the methods used by the music industry and academic publishers, these efforts prevented any major problems arising from "TV piracy" and also demonstrated that the telecommunication infrastructure is advanced enough to facilitate the distribution of high-quality video in thirty or sixty minute segments.
<br><br>Ruling out the material constraints of technology, the reasons for film not being online are instead to be found in the distribution trends of the medium and the nature of the relationship between viewers and cinematic content. These are the factors that must undergo change in order for a system of online distribution to become a reality.
<br><br><strong> <br>Film Distribution: Historiography</strong><br><br>Since its inception, the cinema has distributed itself as both product and art in a variety of media. Change in the dominant method of distribution has been characterized by attempts to embrace new technology, the need to reinvigorate public interest in the film medium, and the desire to take advantage of emerging commercial opportunities.
<br><br>Moving images first appeared in a format that made commercial presentation possible in the last decade of the nineteenth century. Coin-operated mechanical devices that presented a short movie (short in the strictest sense of the word- these films were often under thirty seconds in duration) attracted large audiences. As this sort of presentation was only viewable by one customer at a time, the market for large-scale theatrical exhibition remained unfulfilled.
<br><br>That market would find its answer as the turn of the century drew nearer. The invention and innovation that characterized the era continued, including advances in the study of electricity, which yielded Thomas Edison's light bulb: the central element of the film projector. Advancing camera and film technology pioneered in France and the United States brought theatrical exhibition even closer to reality. In 1895, inventor-filmmakers Louis and Auguste Lumiere curated the first public screening of a film.
<br><br>Early films were exhibited directly by their creators with the filmmakers renting a space, selling tickets, and often using projectors of their own design. Competition was intense between those who looked to profit by advancing the state of cinematic technology. Copyright battles raged, particularly when the notoriously protective Edison took exception to work being done by his European counterparts. This only served to strengthen the industry, however, as methods to shoot and project films became more and more refined. Access to equipment increased as competition forced costs down and soon it was within the means of would-be individuals (and organized film studios) to rent or own the machinery necessary for production and exhibition.
<br><br>By the 1920's, theatrical exhibition of films had reached the form it would retain for many decades. American studios continued the practice of overseeing both the production and the distribution of a given work. To ease the task of finding and booking theaters, many studios built their own. These movie palaces, often accommodating several thousand audience members, were as much a part of Hollywood's Golden Age[4] as the films and movie stars themselves. The eventual privatization of theaters did not upset the model already in place, under which film prints were licensed to theaters by distribution divisions of the studios and profits were shared according to a prearranged schedule.
<br><br>The rise of television in the 1950's posed the first major external threat to the film industry. As suburban sprawl physically moved Americans away from theaters, television brought moving pictures (though not the movies themselves) into the home. Prospects initially looked bleak; in the ten years following 1947, film profits fell 74 percent. (Thompson 375). Filmmakers responded with more color films, wider screens, lavish, epic subjects, and even 3-D films. While some of these attempts proved mere novelties, others served to differentiate film from television as a more mature and technologically advanced medium.
<br><br>Beginning in the late 1960's, film budgets grew as the Age of Blockbusters[5] came to define contemporaneous film production. Large-scale productions offered the opportunity for previously unthinkable profits, but also required substantial investments. Revenue sources besides traditional theatrical exhibition became a necessity in order for studios to compete in the new economic climate. Television and home video each offered the chance to market a film long after its initial release, thus extending its time in the marketplace and providing funds to invest in the next big-budget production. Intended or not, this practice led to a crucial change in the relationship between films and viewers.
<br><br>Bringing movies into the home – previously the realm of more intimate technology such as radio and broadcast television - distanced the experience of watching a movie from the spectacle it had been. In his book Cinema Without Walls, Timothy Corrigan explores this and other shifts in the film industry during the latter half of the twentieth century. The result Corrigan calls, "two sharply distinctive but culturally bound patterns for seeing and receiving movies: the fragmented domestic performance and the public outing" (27). With these two separate acts of viewership coexisting in the lifestyles of millions of Americans, venturing outside the home to see a film in a theater became, ironically, a device for escaping the domestic, media-permeated space.
<br><br>Psychological implications for the film/viewer relationship also flowed from the residence movies took up in the home. For filmmakers, the audience had to be reconceptualized and made more inclusive. Films that would appeal to a wider range of viewers instead of a specific target demographic group had better prospects for long-term success and, therefore, a better change of being made. VCRs (and their current incarnations: DVD players/recorders and digital TiVo recorders) gave viewers a new level of control- one that never existed in the theatrical model. The ability to manipulate movies in simple ways, including altering the volume, pausing in mid-film, and rewinding to watch a scene multiple times, further demystified the spectacle element of theatrical cinema. Film producers stated with their complicity that this was an equitable price to pay in order to receive the benefits of home video profits and residual television licensing fees. Today, it is not uncommon for a moderately successful film to earn more gross income from video sales than theater receipts.
<br><br>Film content itself changed as a result of economic restructuring. Studios, many of which had been operated independently since their formation in the 1920's, were bought up by ever-expanding multinational corporations. The Coca-Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, followed by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation gaining control of 20th Century Fox in 1984. This made facilitation of the huge production costs that major films demanded possible, but it also brought filmmaking firmly under an economic heading. To profit even after incurring such large initial cost, films needed to appeal to as large an audience as possible, both in the theater and afterwards on television and in the home. Content became streamlined as commercial filmmaking entered what pundits have called an era of assembly line production.
<br><br>To balance films that strove for mass appeal (and often disappointed critics), many studios began investing in foreign film industries, importing "artistic" film for narrowly defined segments of the American public. This macro investing significantly affected film industries in smaller nations while also establishing new subgenres that would grow into the Hollywood-controlled (though so-called independent) film wave of the 1990's.
<br><br>Once established, in-home screening of film became a comfortable reality for viewers. The internet, though not a primary carrier of film content, played a part even in its immature state by opening up access for many users. Rental services like NetFlix[6] made thousands of obscure films (including many never stocked by local or franchised video rental houses) viewable to anyone willing to take the time to find them. The service has often been credited with spurring the recent popularity of feature documentary film, one of the most underrepresented genres on television.
Amazon.com[7] made buying home video on all formats convenient and, in many cases, less expensive than in-store purchasing. These and related services reinforced the relatively young institution of watching movies at home, all the while existing alongside their traditional theater-based counterpart.
<br><br>A current trend that extends in-home viewing is the increase in portable devices. Video game systems like Sony's PlayStation Portable include the ability to play movies on a special compact medium.[8] Portable DVD players, whether handheld or installed in automobiles, have also increased in popularity during the past several years. These devices encourage movie watching outside the home, but are a far cry from a return to the theater. What they retain from the standard of home viewing is a sense of individual, private media consumption. Movies watched on a small screen (small enough to comfortably accommodate only one viewer) in a car or waiting room are not a shared experience but rather an introspective escape.
<br><br> <br><strong>Online Film in 2006</strong><br><br>As theatrical attendance hit a low point in the early 2000's, innovative solutions to the balance between distribution formats were sought. A notable example is the most recent contract procured by director Steven Soderbergh under which his films will be released in theaters, on cable television, and on DVD simultaneously. Although this eliminates the exclusive rights to exhibition that theaters normally enjoy, it can be seen as largely an experimental undertaking with hopes of understanding which combination of distribution channels is likely to attract the most viewers.
<br><br>Bubble, released in 2005, was the first film to employ this strategy. Meeting with mixed critical reviews and lackluster sales, the pressure on future films that use the 'day and date' release method are even higher. In light of Bubble's unique distribution, the old-fashioned way of releasing movies can be seen as a system that,
<br><br>has been challenged in recent years, undermined both by new distribution technologies and growing levels of online piracy and counterfeit-DVD sales. Movies are now routinely available online even before their premiere, and can be found for sale on street corners for just a few dollars as the curtain goes up in theaters. (Borland)
<br><br>Even Soderbergh's progressive model, though, neglects to include provisions for making the film directly available online. While distribution has conquered the problem of viewing at home (which would certainly include any hypothetical viewing of network-sourced movies), in practice, its economic model has not yet reached the internet.
<br><br>It would be remiss to neglect mention of the cinematic content that is in fact available online. There is a large and varied field of video available for download or viewing online that can be accessed by any internet user with access to sufficient bandwidth. Amateur video is also widely available on privately managed web sites and video sharing services such as YouTube[9] and
Studentfilms.com[10]. News organizations such as CNN aggressively promote their online video services[11] alongside traditional text-based news stories. Vlogging is emerging as an extension of blogging, replacing text with even more amateur video[12]. A strategic alliance between Apple's iTunes Store and The Walt Disney Company in 2006 made the studio's films available for download concurrent with their release on DVD, once their exclusive theatrical run had expired. While this appears to be a step toward integrated online distribution, it is more precisely an instance of downloads taking the place of tangible home video formats, remaining separated from traditional theatrical exhibition due to the timing of availability. It becomes apparent that the technology is capable, and viewers are willing to download films for viewing at home.
<br> </div>
<div>File sharing software, central to much of the controversy surrounding the legality of music and software copyright issues, is also a major source of video content. Television commercials, film clips, music videos, and pornography are exceedingly available. Peer-to-peer file sharing services like LimeWire and BitTorrent[13] facilitate downloading of new films (those still being shown exclusively in theaters), often in low quality versions produced by moviegoers who smuggled a camera into the theater. As a decentralized and therefore relatively uncontrollable system for distribution, video transmitted via a file sharing network often avoids censorship and copyright issues.
<br><br>As a carrier of creative content, the internet is very much a commercial medium. In this sense, it can be seen as a descendant of television; in both cases, the majority of programming is offered freely with profits coming from initial connection fees paid by users and residual income from advertising that surrounds the primary content. Advertisers wishing to reach as many potential customers as possible are forced to focus on empirical data as much as on the nature of the content they sponsor: ratings shares on television, number of hits for a website.
<br><br>Television, of course, is in many ways an extension of cinema. Films presented the first moving images and, though initially its content was very different, television came to rely on the same form of audio-visual presentation. In this way, we can observe the more general reality of new media as a shifting signifier. What is new is just that; it builds upon earlier media without destroying them and, in time, will become devoid of novelty, perhaps transforming into a foundation for something else. Crucial differences between film and television deal with their social contexts: television in the home, film in theaters. This is the disjunction that the internet appears poised to disrupt. Furthermore, a recent convergence of content styles troubles the notion of television and film each having a clearly defined sphere of subject matter. Since the mid-1990's, films have become increasingly serialized as sequels, trilogies, and remakes encroach on what once was a defining aspect of television. At the same time, television has developed into a more cinematic medium. Programming, often featuring large budgets and high production values, such as series on HBO's subscription networks, air without commercials (one of the superficial advantages of films) and surmount the strictly enforced content regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission on non-subscription broadcasting. While television and movies remain distinct, the lines that once defined them have begun to be called into question.
<br><br>It is within this standard that film would seem such a likely candidate for online distribution. Commercially proven and in possession of a built-in audience, film would come to the internet as pre-commodified content. Instead, the presence most new feature films have online is related to their promotion. Movie trailers, short 'making of' documentaries, still images, and interviews with cast and crew appear routinely on the official website of a film weeks before it is released to theaters. This content is disseminated (much to the delight of the filmmakers) though personal websites, message boards, and services dedicated to providing information about upcoming films (including the popular Internet Movie Database[14].) This free word-of-mouth approach is supplemented by paid advertising- ads on websites are as much a part of the marketing campaign for a film as billboards and television commercials.
<br><br>A notable recent example of a new film's presence online is 2006's Snakes on a Plane, directed by David R. Ellis. Months before the film was released, movie aficionados and fans of the film's star, Samuel L. Jackson, turned
S.o.a.P. (as the film was retitled for quicker online discourse) into a minor internet phenomenon. It became the subject of hundreds of personal websites and was discussed heavily on film-related message boards. All the while, New Line Cinema withheld paid advertising and fed the frenzy by actually calling for new scenes to be included in the film which contained dialogue suggested by fans.
<br><br>This sort of rudimentary interactivity speaks to an important difference between the internet and other, older content carriers. By virtue of its technology, the internet encourages interactivity. Some amateur video content currently online takes advantage of the possibilities opened up by real-time placement of moving images within a network that makes them easily accessible. Video "conversations" on YouTube, where viewer/posters create ongoing discourses with other users, illustrate a new paradigm of communication that would not be possible without the amalgamation of media- film (video) to capture the image quickly and efficiently, and the internet itself to display it for all to see.
<br><br>Television, like theatrical film, is a spectatorial medium that uses technology with fewer options for integrating participation with the audience. Modern television is in the process of making strides toward adding interactive features, in part to keep pace with new activities facilitated by the growing number of online applications. Viewers choosing not only when to watch a given program but also determining its appearance – from how much text appears on the screen during a news broadcast to what camera angles are used in a sporting event – offers the same kind of control that is part of watching video clips online. In 2006, Lorne Manly of The New York Times took up the subject of interactive television, noting,
<br><br>Grandiose promises of an interactive future circulated for decades, then seemingly died out a few years back. But today more than 25 million homes can engage with their television on something approaching their own terms. The omniscient television programmer symbolized by the opening of "The Outer Limits" — "For the next hour, sit quietly and we will control all that you see and hear" — has been humbled. (1)
<br><br>Of course, television networks are able to offer these interactive features because of digital technology – something the internet is based on and film generally lacks. Steven Spielberg, probably the most successful director of the 20th century, understands interactivity as an element that will inevitable come to movies, noting,
<br><br>I think we are eventually going to get to a point where the audience is going to want to make a choice: to go to a movie theater and let the movie just roll over them, and they walk out having felt that a confident filmmaker told them a really good story and that is really satisfying. But also in the future there is going to be a movie theater that allows the audience to be active members in the story-telling process. And I think the audiences who are flocking to video games, which is an interactive experience, are going to want to interact with movies as they play in real time. And there will be room for both. There will be stories that allow the audience to determine the outcome. (Philadelphia)
<br><br>It could very well be that Spielberg's vision is in the process realization, but that the interactive theater he speaks of is located within the walls of the American home.<br><br>Online, film viewing could gain a reciprocal relationship with viewers for the first time. Manipulating playback as with a VCR, internet films could also offer viewers choices about content in the form of multiple endings and various edits of a film designed for specific audiences or age groups. Filmmakers who embrace network-intended production could reasonably be expected to devise specific facets of interactivity that would be difficult to imagine today, while much film still sees the big screen as its ultimate destination.
<br><br> <br><strong>The Effects of Film's Absence</strong><br><br>Just as computers have forced change in the media that preceded them, films, by remaining in the theater, are in the process of transforming the ways that audiences relate to cinema. Part of this transformation comes in the form of a punctuated shift in power as internet users find themselves capable, for the first time, of creating and sharing content on a scale previously attainable only to mass market distributors. Independent filmmakers of the past needed to make powerful friends if they wanted their film to play outside of their own locality. As electronic networks force us to reconceptualize space, with less emphasis on limiting geographic realities, a much broader field of practitioners gain the opportunity to disseminate content digitally and at a low cost.
<br><br>Digital video content, once online (and therefore classifiable, searchable, and reproducible), brings other inventive ways of working to filmmakers. Remix culture, previously the domain of artists working in older media such as music, becomes a reality once artists have access to a large enough stockpile of images that there is no need to create their own. While reusing images produced by others confronts questions of copyright legality, distribution of content on the internet is, as noted earlier, notoriously difficult to control.
<br><br>The ease with which video can be put online means viewers have far more options than ever before. Video cameras put the means of motion picture production in the hands of the masses as early as the 1970's, and the popularization of digital video in the 1990's extended this to include the ability to produce internet-ready video easily and affordably. While much of what is made available online today is of questionable quality, viewers have been forced to develop new skills for searching, filtering, and organizing content. Consequently, predominance shifts away from centralized means of distribution and the old system, under which a de facto monopoly on moving image presentation was held by those with the resources needed to make a film suitable for theatrical showing.
<br><br>As power leaves centralized distribution, it is spread out over the much larger group of filmmakers- those who make their work easily available online. Claims that video technology would democratize the medium are finally coming to fruition. Without being beholden to investors who demand a profit, the creators of low-budget productions have more latitude in terms of subject matter and filmic style than directors hoping to "break through" and win power within the commercial film industry by bowing to convention. Independent films no longer require approval from a major distributor if they hope to achieve success, since producers can self-promote and self-distribute their work online.
<br><br>However the internet is not a gateway to a utopian era for cinema. As with any new technology, adaptation can be a difficult process. While some filmmakers embrace new methods and machines, others cling to romantic notions of the past. As to the question of offering films online, some simply prefer the notion of a theatrical experience where some movies stand to gain substantially when watched with a group. Comedy is particularly notorious for benefiting from the contagious laughter that a large audience can succumb to. Other filmmakers simply prefer to participate in an historical tradition that involves leaving the home and entering a space specifically dedicated to the viewing of film where, surrounded by strangers, they might be expected to give more of their attention to what is shown on the screen than they would if watching from an armchair in their own, private domestic space.
<br><br>Although young filmmakers tend to be quicker to embrace the newest technologies, there are some notable exceptions. One case in point is 83-year old experimental filmmaker Jonas Mekas. Known as "the godfather of American avant-garde cinema", Mekas rose to prominence in 1960's New York as an important filmmaker and media curator. Begun in 2006, his latest undertaking is a series of short videos which will be made available online, to be purchased and downloaded to an Apple Video iPod[15]. In announcing the project, Mekas spoke of the power of small images (the Video iPod screen measures
2.5 inches diagonally), which deny the grandeur of the theater's big screen:<br><br>It's very personal, you hold it in your hand, in your palm, there it is: Life, cinema, art… in your palm. Of course, that will change cinema itself. I think that cinema is becoming more and more like poetry, like books, where it's just you and the image, just you and the poem. ("Short Films.")
<br><br>With these remarks, Mekas begins the process of speculating about what the future may hold for the cinema and its viewers.<br><br> <br><strong>The Future of Film Online</strong><br><br>As the internet continues to expand and mature, the nature of media will remain an important social issue. The film industry and the average viewer will experience transformations large and small in the way they relate to cinema, just as they have for the life of the medium. One potential future scenario supported by the current landscape is an even more divisive separation between the commercial film industry and all other forms of image production. Two distinct factions would emerge, defined by where their production will be shown: in theaters, or online. In this scenario, independent filmmakers would remain on the fringes of the industry, responding to its trends and methods while occasionally crossing aesthetic and economic boundaries. (For instance, an internet filmmaker who achieves fame and turns to larger-scale industrial production for theaters, just as today successful television directors often earn a chance to try their hand in Hollywood.)
<br><br>It is also certainly within the realm of possibilities that the commercial film industry will catch up to the potential and demands of the internet culture. The aforementioned distribution systems used by Steven Soderbergh and the Disney/iTunes collaboration may be the first steps in a full integration of the internet by film producers and distributors. Given the flexibility they have demonstrated in the past, this is not altogether unlikely.
<br><br>In any case, the current era is a time of change for film viewership. In considering the significance of early television, Marshall McLuhan famously asserted that The Medium is the Message. The internet is already a bringer of social change in ways that television never was, even through fifty years of maturation. As the new medium in American life, the internet provides for a radical transformation of cinema. A film changes in a fundamental way when it jumps between media, just as film produced with the internet in mind will be unavoidably affected. For viewers, new content is presented through new conduits. Collectively, the choices made about what to watch, and where to watch it, will characterize the future of moving images as an art form and a forum for social activity.
<br><br> </div>
<div><br>Works Cited<br><br> <br>Borland, John. "Soderbergh does a DVD-theater release combo." CNET <a href="http://News.com">News.com</a>.<br><br>12 Jan. 2006 <<a href="http://news.com.com/Soderbergh+does+a+DVD-theater+">
http://news.com.com/Soderbergh+does+a+DVD-theater+</a> release+combo/2100-1025_3-6026218.html>.<br><br>Corrigan, Timothy. Cinema Without Walls: Movies and Culture After Vietnam. <br><br>New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991.
<br><br>Gillmor, Dan. We the Media: Grassroots Journalism By the People, For the People. <br><br> Cambridge: O'Reilly Media, Inc., 2004.<br><br>Manly, Lorne. "Your TV Would Like a Word With You." The New York Times
<br><br>19 Nov. 2006, late ed., sec. 2: 1+.<br><br>Philadelphia, Desa. "Spielberg at the Revolution." TIME.com 14 Mar. 2006. <http://<br><br> <a href="http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1173367,00.html?promoid=rss_arts">
www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1173367,00.html?promoid=rss_arts</a>>.<br><br>"Short Films Coming Soon to an iPod Near You." All Things Considered. Natl. Public <br><br>Radio. 5 Nov. 2006. <<a href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=">
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=</a><br><br>6439426>.<br><br>Thompson, Kristin and David Bordwell. Film History: An Introduction. New York: <br><br>McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.<br><br>________________________________
<br><br><br><br>[1] The iTunes Store, previously known as iTunes Music Store, is the vendor service included in Apple's iTunes media player software. iTunes, available for free download, has been offered by Apple since 2001; the store component first appeared in versions of the software released in 2003 and allowed most popular, mass-distributed songs to be downloaded for 99 cents each.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[2] <<a href="http://www.jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org</a>>. JSTOR – The Scholarly Journal Archive appeared in 1995. The non-profit service provides archived academic publications to subscribing libraries and research universities.
<br><br><br>[3] Produced by TiVo Inc., the TiVo digital video recorder (DVR) was first sold in 1999 and is the most popular product of its kind in the United States, though similar devices are sold in other countries. Owners pay a monthly subscription fee and can access television programming stored on the recorder's hard drive, thus enabling programs to be viewed at times other than their initial broadcast.
<br><br><br>[4] Alternately called The Golden Age of Hollywood, this term refers roughly to the period from 1920 to 1934 during which film profits reached new heights.<br><br> <br><br><br>[5] The period of large-scale film production beginning in the late 1960's and continuing, in some form, ever since; typified by Steven Spielberg's Jaws (1975).
<br><br><br>[6] <<a href="http://www.NETFLIX.com">http://www.NETFLIX.com</a>>. Operating since 1998, NetFlix is a service under which subscribers pay a fee to have DVDs they select from a massive database sent to them via postal mail. Popular rental chain Blockbuster Video launched its Total Access service in 2006 as a direct response to the growing popularity of NetFlix, offering online rental of many titles not available for rent or sale in its stores.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[7] <<a href="http://www.amazon.com">http://www.amazon.com</a>>. Amazon, founded in 1995, was one of the first major online retailers to emerge, selling primarily books, then music and videos. As of 2006, it sells a wide range of products and is consistently among the top ranked online retailers in terms of sales figures.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[8] PlayStation Portable movie playback utilizes the Universal Media Disc (UMD), also developed by Sony. Introduced in 2005, the PlayStation Portable is sold under the slogan "PSP: Entertainment Without Boundaries".
<br><br><br>[9] <<a href="http://www.youtube.com">http://www.youtube.com</a>>. YouTube allows anyone to upload video clips for free public viewing. Launched in 2005, YouTube skyrocketed to popularity and was acquired by Google, Inc. in 2006.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[10] <<a href="http://www.studentfilms.com">http://www.studentfilms.com</a>>. Similar to YouTube, <a href="http://Studentfilms.com">Studentfilms.com</a> is intended for use only by students; submissions must be associated with an academic institution. Unlike YouTube, students pay an annual fee for their film to be exhibited, often in hopes of gathering feedback from viewers.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[11] <<a href="http://www.cnn.com">http://www.cnn.com</a>>, the online presence of Time Warner's Cable News Network, offers video in several ways. Short clips pertaining to recent news stories can be viewed online free of charge, and during especially newsworthy events such as the 2006 United States midterm elections, live 24-hour coverage is also viewable. CNN Pipeline is a subscription service offered by the website that gives viewers access to more content, including archives of older video clips.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[12] Blogging is best defined as providing a continually updated journal online, arranging entries in reverse chronological order. Blogs (etymology: 'web logs') encourage readers to return frequently as new content is added. Vlogging, then, is this same activity when video content is used in place of, or to augment, written text.
<br><br> <br><br><br>[13] These programs, freely downloadable at <<a href="http://www.limewire.com/english/content/home.shtml">http://www.limewire.com/english/content/home.shtml</a>> and <<a href="http://www.bittorrent.com">
http://www.bittorrent.com</a>> respectively, are just two examples of peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing services. "With technologies such as BitTorrent… every downloader's computer is also a content server. So the more popular [content is], the less it costs" (Gillmor 37-38). Collectively, programs of this sort constitute a sizeable percentage of the world's internet traffic.
<br><br><br>[14] <<a href="http://www.imdb.com">http://www.imdb.com</a>>. The Internet Movie Database, now owned by <a href="http://Amazon.com">Amazon.com</a>, emerged in 1990 as a means of searching for film-related information on the early internet. As of 2006, it includes detailed production information on most films ever made since the silent era, as well as short clips, still images, and showtimes for current releases.
<br><br><br>[15] The iPod is Apple Computer Inc.'s hugely popular portable music player. First sold in 2001, newer models include a video playback feature. The iPod is meant to synchronize with Apple's iTunes media player software.
</div>